Childhood developmental trauma is the most common type of trauma in children based on distressing experiences taking place in a child’s formative years (From birth through to eight years old). This specific type of trauma is a result of repeated and prolonged exposure to harmful experiences.

The key characteristics of childhood developmental trauma include feeling unsafe, powerless, and betrayed.

Normally influenced by a single traumatic event, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop when a child’s natural coping mechanisms are overwhelmed, leading to ongoing symptoms such as flashbacks, nightmares, heightened alertness, avoidance behaviours and difficulties with concentration and emotional regulation.

According to King’s College London, one in 13 young people has experienced post-traumatic stress disorder before the age of 18.

Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD) is influenced by repeated or prolonged traumatic events over a long period of time, including ongoing abuse, neglect or chronic mistreatment.

Signs of trauma in children with CPTSD include:

• Disassociation and detachment.
• Difficulty regulating emotions.
• Difficulty forming healthy relationships (Struggling to trust and develop close connections).
• Negative self-belief.

Developed in the late 1990s, the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study has helped transform our understanding of long-term health consequences linked to trauma in children.

With over 17,000 adults surveyed, we gained undeniable correlations between how trauma in children leads to various problems in adulthood.

From developing illnesses and diseases to social factors like poverty, violence and neglect, the scope of ACEs is extensive and complex. More than direct experience, intergenerational consequences have also been found, showing how trauma in children can be passed down generations.

The key findings from the ACEs study were that the more exposure to ACEs a child can suffer, the more likely they are to develop issues in later life.

ACEs can be divided into two categories:

Direct ACEs

• Physical abuse.
• Sexual abuse.
• Emotional abuse.
• Physical neglect.
• Emotional neglect.

Indirect ACEs

• Parental mental illness.
• Having a parent in prison.
• Experiencing domestic abuse.
• Parental substance abuse.
• Experiencing parental divorce or separation.

The ACEs study was further developed in 2015 to include six more experiences or events that can cause long-term trauma:

• Poverty.
• Exposure to community violence.
• Bullying.
• Racial discrimination.
• Foster care.
• Separation from immigrant parents.

Trauma can present in many different ways, and behaviours may vary depending on the child and their experience.

Common signs of trauma in children include:

• Withdrawal or social distancing.
• Changes in eating habits.
• Acting out, including verbal or physical aggression.
• Nightmares or flashbacks.
• “Zoning out” or dissociation.
• Substance misuse (in older pupils).
• Heightened agitation.
• Clinginess or separation anxiety.
• Rejecting support or relationships.
• Over-compliance or “people-pleasing” behaviours.
• Difficulties with empathy or emotional connection.

Trauma can also impact how a child thinks, processes information and responds to their environment.

Some cognitive and emotional signs may include:

• Hypervigilance (being constantly on alert).
• Exaggerated startles or jumpy reflexes.
• Anxiety, panic or persistent worry.
• Misinterpreting neutral situations as threatening.
• Intrusive thoughts.
• Reliving traumatic experiences (flashbacks or distressing memories).

Children may also present in a hypo-aroused state, which can include:

• Low energy or emotional shutdown.
• Difficulty concentrating.
• Poor memory and information retention.
• Withdrawal or disengagement from learning.

As discussed, trauma affects the development and functioning of a child’s nervous system. When a child perceives a threat, the brain prioritises survival over learning, activating automatic responses such as fight, flight, freeze or fawn.

In these moments, children are not choosing to behave in a challenging way. Their nervous system is responding as though they are in danger, even when the environment is safe.

As a result, traditional behaviour management strategies such as repeated instructions or sanctions may be ineffective when a child is dysregulated. Before learning can take place, children need support to feel safe, regulated and emotionally secure.

The process of dysregulation typically moves through seven stages:

• Calm
• Trigger
• Agitation
• Acceleration
• Peak
• De-escalation
• Recovery

If preventative measures fail, adults must focus on managing the response and prioritising de-escalation as early as possible. The aim is to reduce escalation safely and support the child to a regulated state, where reflection, learning and repair can take place during the recovery phase.

Different regulation strategies may support different nervous system responses:

Fight or Flight responses may benefit from:

• Rhythmic movement, such as rocking or structured physical activity
• Sensory input, such as weighted blankets or enclosed calm spaces
• Pushing or squeezing activities (e.g. stress balls or therapy putty)
• Calming auditory input, such as nature sounds or white noise
• Soft, low-stimulation lighting environments

Freeze or Shutdown responses may benefit from:

• Gentle movement, such as walking, skipping or bouncing
• Brighter lighting or increased sensory stimulation where appropriate
• Fidget tools or tactile resources
• Structured physical activity, such as climbing or throwing/catching
• Creative activities, such as drawing or scribbling

These strategies should be used to support regulation, not to engage the child in discussion about behaviour during moments of distress.

Recognising trauma is not about lowering expectations or excusing behaviour. By understanding behaviour in context, we may respond to maintain safety and encourage healing.

Part of this is being proactive and identifying situations which might trigger a trauma response, for example:

• They struggle with transitions between lessons or activities.
• They become distressed during unstructured times (e.g. break or lunch).
• They find assemblies or large group settings overwhelming.
• They react strongly to perceived criticism or correction from adults.
• They have difficulty trusting new staff or supply teachers.
• They become anxious when routines are not followed exactly as expected.
• They avoid certain rooms, areas of the school, or specific subjects without a clear reason.
• They show heightened distress when separated from key adults or trusted peers.
• They struggle with waiting, turn-taking or sharing resources.
• They may “shut down” or become non-responsive when overwhelmed.
• They react strongly to unexpected sensory input (alarms, bells, shouting, crowded corridors).
• They find lunchtime queues, busy corridors or social spaces overwhelming.

With the right support, consistent relationships and a regulated environment, children can begin to heal, develop resilience and re-engage with learning. Schools play a vital role in this process by providing stability, understanding and appropriate emotional support.

For children who become overwhelmed, having a clear exit plan in the classroom can be essential. This may include:

• Taking a break from the classroom when signs of dysregulation appear.
• Using a pre-agreed script or visual prompt to request support or a time-out.
• Following a consistent routine for leaving and returning to learning.
• Accessing a safe, calm space to regulate emotions.

These strategies should be agreed in advance so that children understand what will happen and feel secure in using them.

Teachers should be equipped with practical strategies for the classroom to regulate trauma response. Being mindful and proactive with solutions that can help regulate children can go a long way to ensuring situations don’t escalate:

• Predictable routines and visual timetables.
• Clear communication of changes in advance.
• Access to self-regulation tools and strategies.
• Planned exit routes or calm spaces when needed.
• Use of non-verbal signals and supportive cues.
• Positive reinforcement and reassurance.
• Trauma-informed behaviour approaches that avoid re-traumatisation.
• Calm, neutral responses that avoid personal judgment.

Beyond the confines of the classroom, a trauma-informed approach is most effective when it is embedded across the whole school.

• Trauma-informed policies and consistent staff training.
• Early identification of emotional and mental health needs.
• Strong focus on prevention and early intervention.
• A safe, predictable and positive environment both at home and in school contexts.
• Educating staff and parents about the signs and impact of trauma.
• Teaching children how to recognise and express their emotions.
• Providing safe spaces where children can learn, play and regulate.

It’s important to remember that every child’s experience of trauma is unique. Responses should always be individualised, and support should be adapted to meet specific needs. Where concerns arise, schools should seek appropriate guidance and support rather than managing in isolation.

When children are in a heightened state of arousal, adults play a key role in helping them return to a regulated state. In these moments, staff should aim to:

• Acknowledge the child’s feelings without judgment.
• Use a calm, steady and even tone of voice.
• Reduce language and avoid overwhelming instruction.
• Offer simple choices where appropriate.
• Avoid arguing, negotiating or escalating the situation.

The goal is to help the child regain a sense of safety so they can begin to regulate their own emotions. Where possible, guiding them to a calm space and maintaining a consistent, reassuring presence can be highly effective.

In some situations, escalation may occur despite best efforts. In these cases, clear procedures should be followed to ensure the safety of both the child and others, including removing the child from risk if necessary.

Some children with trauma histories may also present attachment-related difficulties. In these cases, consistency and trust are essential.

Schools should implement:

• Assigning trusted adults or key workers where appropriate.
• Ensuring access to predictable, safe spaces.
• Building consistent relationships over time.
• Supporting children with agreed coping strategies during challenging moments.